Consumer Behavior: Chapter 4 - Learning and Memory

1.      The Learning Process

a.       Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that is caused by experience.

1)      Instead of direct experience, the learner can learn vicariously by observing events that affect others.

2)      We can learn without even really trying—just observing brand names on shelves. This casual, unintentional acquisition of knowledge is called incidental learning.

a)      Learning is an ongoing process. Our world of knowledge is constantly being revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback.

i.        The concept of learning covers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between a stimulus such as a product logo and a response to a complex series of cognitive activities.

2.      Behavioral Learning Theories

a.       Behavioral learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events.

1)      With respect to these theories, the mind might be perceived as being a “black box” and observable aspects of behavior are emphasized.

2)      The observable aspects consist of things that go in to the box (the stimuli—or events perceived from the outside world) and things that come out of the box (the responses—or reactions to these stimuli).

b.      The previous view is represented by two views:

1)      Classical conditioning.

2)      Instrumental conditioning.

c.       The sum of the activities is that people’s experiences are shaped by the feedback they receive as they go through life. People also learn that actions they take result in rewards and punishments, and these feedback influences the way they will respond in similar situations in the future.

      Classical Conditioning

d.      Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own.

1)      Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus.

2)      This phenomenon was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov’s “dog experiments” when doing research on digestion in animals.

a)      Pavlov induced classical conditioning learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell) with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat powder into their mouths).

b)      The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) because it was naturally capable of causing the response.

c)      Over time, the bell became a conditioned response (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only.

d)      The drooling of these canine consumers over a sound, now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR).

3)      This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov primarily applies to responses controlled by the autonomic and nervous systems.

4)      Classical conditioning can have similar effects for more complex reactions (such as in automatically using a credit card for purchases).

e.       Conditioning effects are more likely to occur after the conditioned stimuli (CS) and unconditioned stimuli (UCS) have been paired a number of times (repetition). Notice how often ad campaigns are repeated. Repetition prevents decay.

f.        Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke similar, conditioned responses. Pavlov’s dogs might respond to sounds similar to a bell (such as keys jangling).

1)      People also react to other, similar stimuli in much the same way they responded to the original stimulus; a generalization known as the halo effect.

2)      Private brands often use “piggybacking” to build on impressions built by major brands.

3)      Masked branding occurs when a manufacturer deliberately hides a product’s true origin.

g.      Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by an UCS. When this happens, reactions are weakened and will soon disappear.

1)      Manufacturers of well-established brands urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations.”

Marketing Applications of Behavioral Learning Principles

h.      Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli and responses. Examples would be:

1)      Distinctive brand image.

2)      Linkage between a product and an underlying need.

3)      Brand equity is where a brand has a strong positive association in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result.

4)      Repetition can be valuable. Too much repetition, however, results in advertising wearout.

i.        Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable association.

1)      The order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Presenting unconditioned stimulus prior to the conditioned stimulus (backward conditioning) is not effective.

2)      Product associations can be extinguished in the long run if not reinforced.

j.        The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging decisions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing brand or company name. Strategies include:

1)      Family branding.

2)      Product line extensions.

3)      Licensing.

4)      Look-alike packaging.

k.      An emphasis on communicating a product’s distinctive attributes vis-à-vis its competitors is an important aspect of positioning, where consumers differentiate a brand from its competitors. Stimulus discrimination attempts to promote unique attributes of a brand.

l.        Concerns for marketers relating to stimulus discrimination include the loss exclusive rights to a brand name to the public domain and brand piracy.

Instrumental Conditioning

m.    Instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning) occurs as the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes. This approach is closely associated with B.F. Skinner. (He taught pigeons and other animals to dance and play Ping-Pong using this method.)

1)      Although responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex.

2)      Desired behavior may be rewarded in a process called shaping.

3)      Instrumental conditioning (learning) occurs as a result of a reward received following the desired behavior.

n.      Instrumental learning occurs in one of three ways:

1)      When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened and appropriate behavior is learned (a woman wearing perfume and receiving a compliment).

2)      Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that appropriate behavior is learned (a woman sitting at home alone because she is not wearing a certain perfume). 

3)      In contrast to situations where we learn to do certain things to avoid unpleasantness, punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events. We learn the hard way not to repeat these behaviors (a woman being ridiculed for wearing the wrong perfume).

o.      When a positive outcome is no longer received, extinction is likely to occur and the learned stimulus-response connection will not be maintained.

p.      An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate reinforcements are given for a behavior. Several reinforcement schedules are possible:

1)      Fixed-interval reinforcement.

2)      Variable-interval reinforcement.

3)      Fixed-ratio reinforcement.

4)      Variable-ratio reinforcement.

      Marketing Applications of Instrumental Conditioning Principles

q.      Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer is rewarded or punished for a purchase decision.

1)      Most companies reinforce consumption.

2)      A popular technique called frequency marketing reinforces regular purchases by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased.

3.      Cognitive Learning Theory

a.       Cognitive learning theory approaches stress the importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem-solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment.

      Is Learning Conscious or Not?

b.      There are several schools of thought.

1)      One school believes that conditioning occurs because subjects develop conscious hypotheses and then act on them.

2)      There is also evidence for the existence of nonconscious procedural knowledge—we move toward familiar patterns (automatic responses).

      Observational Learning

c.       Observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note the reinforcements they receive for their behaviors—learning occurs as a result of vicarious rather than direct experience.

1)      Memories are stored for later use.

2)      Imitating the behavior of others is called modeling.

3)      Four conditions must be met for modeling to occur (see Figure 3.3):

a)      The consumer’s attention must be directed to the appropriate model, which for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity is desirable to emulate.

b)      The consumer must remember what is said or done by the model.

c)      The consumer must convert this information into actions.

d)      The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

      Marketing Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles

d.      Consumers’ ability to learn in this way has helped marketers.

1)      People’s willingness to make their own reinforcements has saved the marketers from having to do it for them.

2)      Consumers seem to enjoy using “models” as role models and for guidance in purchasing.

4.      The Role of Memory in Learning

a.       Memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so that it will be available when needed.

1)      Contemporary approaches to the study of memory employ an information-processing approach.

a)      In the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system will recognize.

b)      In the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed.

c)      During retrieval, the person accesses the desired information.

      How Information Gets Encoded

b.      The way information is encoded, or mentally programmed, helps to determine how it will be represented in memory.

1)      A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of its sensory meaning (such as its color or shape).

2)      Semantic meaning refers to symbolic associations, such as the idea that rich people drink champagne or that fashionable men wear earrings.

3)      Episodic memories are those that relate to events that are personally relevant.

4)      Flashbulb memories are those that are especially vivid (such as memories of September 11, 2001).

a)      One method of conveying product information is through a narrative or story.

b)      Much of what an individual acquires about social information is received through the narrative or story; therefore, it is a useful marketing technique for transmitting information.

      Memory Systems

c.       There are three distinct memory systems:

1)      Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses. This storage is very temporary (it only lasts a couple of seconds).

2)      If information is retained for further processing, it passes through an attentional gate and is transferred to short-term memory (STM).

3)      STM also stores information for a limited period of time, and its capacity is limited.  Think of it as working memory since it holds information we are currently processing.  The information can be stored either acoustically (in terms of how it sounds) or semantically (in terms of what it means.)   Memory generally stores information by combining small pieces into larger ones in a process known as chunking.

a)      A chunk is a configuration that is familiar to the person and can be manipulated as a unit.

b)      An example would be a brand name, which summarizes a great deal of detailed information.

4)      Long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long period of time. Catchy slogans or jingles often help in this area.   A cognitive process called elaborative rehearsal allows information to move from short-term memory to long-term memory.

      Storing Information in Memory

d.      Relationships among the types of memory are a source of controversy.

1)      The traditional view (multiple-store) is that the short-term memory and long-term memory are separate systems.

2)      Recent work says they may be interdependent (activation models of memory). Deep processing means that the information will probably be placed in long-term memory.

e.       Activation models propose that an incoming piece of information is stored in an association network containing many bits of related information organized according to some set of relationships. This is how the consumer can organize brands, manufacturers, and stores.

1)      These storage units are known as knowledge structures (think of them as spider Webs full of knowledge).

a)      This information is placed into nodes that are connected by associative links within these structures.

b)      Pieces of information that are seen as similar in some way are chunked together under some more abstract category.

2)      Preference categories are known as evoked sets. The task of the marketer is to position itself as a category member and to provide cues that facilitate its placement in the proper category.

Consumers go through a process of spreading activation as they shift back and forth between levels of meaning. Memory traces are sent out. They could be:

3)      Brand-specific.

4)      Ad-specific.

5)      Brand-identification.

6)      Product category.

7)      Evaluative reactions.

f.        Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction and complexity.  Meaning concepts get stored as individual nodes.

1)       A proposition links two nodes together to form a more complex meaning, which can serve as a single chunk of information.

2)      Propositions are integrated into a schema that is seen as a cognitive framework that is developed through experience.

3)      One type of schema is a script, where a sequence of events is expected by an individual. Scripts that guide behavior in commercial settings are known as service scripts. Think of all the activities one goes through when they go to the dentist.

      Retrieval Information for Purchase Decisions

g.      Retrieval is the process whereby information is accessed from long-term memory. Factors that influence retrieval are:

1)      Age.

2)      Situational variables (such as the environment).

h.      The spacing effect describes the tendency for us to recall printed material more effectively when the advertiser repeats the target item periodically rather than presenting it repeatedly n a short time period.

i.        Some advertisers are experimenting with bitcoms.  In a typical bitcom, when a commercial pod starts, a stand-up comedian (perhaps an actor in the show itself) performs a small set that leads into the actual commercial.

j.        In a process called state-dependent retrieval, people are better able to access information if their internal state is the same at the time of recall as when the information was learned.

1)      This phenomenon, called the mood congruence effect, underscores the desirability of matching a consumer’s mood at the time of purchase when planning exposure to marketing communications.

2)      As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall. Familiarity can also result in inferior recall, however, because the product can be “taken for granted” and assumed to have no new information worth processing.

k.      The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory.

1)      Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus also improves recall (called the von Restorff Effect).

2)      Putting a surprise element in an ad can be effective.

      Factors Influencing Forgetting

l.        Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. The forgetting process consists of:

1)      Decay—the structural changes in the brain produced by learning simply go away.

2)      Forgetting also occurs due to interference; as additional information is learned, it displaces the earlier information.

3)      Consumers may forget stimulus-response associations if they learn new responses to the same or similar stimuli (retroactive interference).

4)      Prior learning can interfere with new learning through a process known as proactive interference.

5)      Part-list cueing effect allows marketers to strategically utilize the interference process (competitors, though known, are not easily recalled).

      Products as Memory Makers

m.    Products and ads can themselves serve as powerful retrieval cues.

1)      Nostalgia has been described as a bittersweet emotion, where the past is viewed with both sadness and longing. This has an appeal for many consumers.

2)      Retro marketing attempts to bring back old commercials to appeal to the nostalgia market. A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period.

      Measuring our Memory for Marketing Messages

n.      Surprisingly, consumers do a rather poor job of recalling significant pieces of information about most products. This is especially true with television ads. (Only 7 percent of television viewers can recall the product or company featured in most of the recent ads they have watched.)

1)      The impression made is called impact.

2)      Measures of impact are:

a)      Recognition.

b)      Recall.

3)      Recognition tends to stay longer than recall.

4)      One test for measuring recognition and recall is the Starch Test.

o.      Although the measurement of an ad’s memorability is important, the ability of existing measures to accurately assess these dimensions has been criticized for several reasons.

1)      Response bias—results obtained from a measuring instrument are not necessarily due to what is being measured, but rather to something else about the instrument or the respondent. Simply, people tend to give “yes” answers.

2)      Memory lapses—people are prone to unintentionally forgetting information.

3)      Memory for facts versus feelings—it is very difficult to take “feelings” out of impressions about ads (especially if the ad raises strong emotions). Recall does not translate into preference.